Cultural ecosystem services (CES) are defined by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) as “the non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences.” The ecosystems within which human cultures exist have always influenced the evolution of those cultures. At the same time, human systems continually shape their surrounding environment and modify the availability of certain valued services. While there are specific cultural ‘‘services’’ that ecosystems provide (such as aesthetic enjoyment, recreation, spiritual fulfillment, and intellectual development), it is difficult to separate these services or their combined...
